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An Empirical Analysis of the Efficacy of Reiki:
The Relationship Between Practice and Well-Being

By Sean M. Allen - B.A. Hons

In Accordance with the requirements for Bachelor of Arts Honors in Psychology
University of Regina

August 20th, 2005

        Currently, within Western society, the biomedical model of health care is being challenged. A more wholistic approach to health and well-being that is promoted by complementary and alternative practices such as Reiki, Chi-gong, or reflexology lays at the apex of this confrontation. Social distaste of Western medical treatment, pertaining heavily to health and well-being, have spawned the growth and increased investment in therapeutic endeavors that are considered anti-mainstream or alternative at best. In Canada, complementary and alternative medicine—treatments or practices used in conjunction with western or instead of western medical practice respectively—are as high as one-half to three-quarters of the general population (Couzin, 1998; Anonymous, 1999; Steuter, 2002). Furthermore, this increased use has created out-of-pocket expenditures in excess of 3 million dollars per year and growing (Steuter, 1997; Schuster, 1997). This development is a result of a wide gamut of medical issues that have come to be defined and managed narrowly by the contemporary biomedical system. Western medicine has entered a new zeitgeist; one that defines its efficacy not by its scientific (biological) successes, but rather its social failures—the interaction with human values—which has significantly influenced this socio-cultural movement to different health practices (Callahan, 1990). Moreover, according to Stein (1990), health, well-being, illness, and its treatment are both biological and social in nature. This movement has been attributed, but not limited to, the lack of treatment for chronic illness, increased immigration, and the cold, distant demeanor of the current medical system (Bar, 1998). Where the Western biomedical system has created an assembly-line style approach to health care, wholistic healers view the human organism as an integrated whole—mind, body, and spirit. Wholism not only actively re-introduces empathetic sharing, but also emphasizes education toward greater personal responsibility for our health (English-Lueck, 1990).

        As a result of the increasing influence that wholistic health has had on Western society, institutions have been created to organize, understand, and research those practices deemed complementary or alternative to the Western medical model. Through the establishment of the American Holistic Medical Association (AHMA), the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM) – currently known as the National Committee for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM), and more recently the Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy, these systems of research, education, and regulation, of complementary and alternative forms of medicine (CAMs) have progressively found more understanding, acceptance, and implementation in Western society (deMaye-Caruth, 2000; Anderson, 2001). However, even in light of this advancement, the debate over the efficacy of complementary and alternative medical practices still exists between practitioners of these unconventional healing modalities and the biomedical community.

        Established as an offshoot of the National Institute of Health (NIH), the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM) has been empowered to conduct continuing scientific study of complementary and alternative modalities. This organization has provided information-based education and has acted as a liaison between federal agencies in hopes of reducing any restrictions that would inhibit the integration of complementary and alternative modalities (Bar, 1998; deMaye-Caruth, 2000). In addition, published research, clarification of wholistic vernacularisms, and the classification and more detailed description of the numerous complementary and alternative practices has made the OAM one of the main sources of information regarding CAMs. The OAMs initiative has grown steadily, and in 1998, it was expanded and renamed the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM).With an increase in funding of 2 million from 1993 to 68 million in 2000, the NCCAM currently funds 10 research locations that are dedicated to the scientific study of complementary and alternative medicines and their effects on chronic illness, pain and pediatrics (deMaye-Caruth, 2000; Dokken & Syndor-Greenberg, 2000).

        The wholistic trend is strong in Canada, where it is estimated that 50% of the general population currently uses, and 73% have used complementary alternative medicines at some point in their life time (Couzin, 1998; Anonymous, 1999; Steuter, 2002). Moreover, the out of pocket expenditures are estimated to be as high as 3.8 billion in Canada and 27 billion in the United States (Steuter, 1997; Schuster, 1997; deMaye-Caruth, 2000). With a worldwide estimated prevalence as high as 70-90%, it is predicted that by the year 2010, Western culture will have a CAM prevalence rate as high as 88% (Cooper & Stoflet, 1996; Parkman, 2001). Furthermore, Sparber and Wootton (2001) compiled a comprehensive article to summarize some of the many research surveys that have been conducted on the use of CAMs in the United States. The surveys conducted found that between 24.7% and 83% of the general population use some form of CAM.

        This dramatic increase in CAM usage has resulted in an increase in education to satisfy societal desire for more wholistic health care and the growing need for further understanding. In Canada, 13 of the 16 medical faculties as well as 70 medical institutions in the United States now offer classes in complementary and alternative medicine (Steuter, 1997; deMaye-Caruth, 2000; Dworkin, 2001). This move to train and educate is supported by the demand perceived by physicians; of the 65% of physicians who have identified this trend, 16% practice some form of alternative medicine, 54% refer their patients to alternative medical practitioners, and 73% uphold the importance of doctors being educated about alternative medical practices (Steuter, 2002).

        Biofield energy modalities of CAM, more specifically Reiki, have been shown to produce positive effects in the areas of stress, anxiety, and pain—both chronic and acute (deMaye-Caruth, 2000; Krieger, 1979; Witte & Dundes, 2001; Anderson, 2001; Eichhorn, 2002). Although the process underlying the success of such practices is not fully understood, it is hypothesized that the subtle electromagnetic energy of one person interacts with that of another to stimulate the body into healing itself (Bar, 1998). Unfortunately, the majority of the research has neglected Reiki practice, instead focusing on grouping the many other practices under the broad encompassing name of biofield energy modalities (deMaye-Caruth, 2000). Both Reiki and other biofield energy practices (i.e., Therapeutic Touch) facilitate healing through an underlying energy that can be guided and manipulated (Dworkin, 2001), and as such, the resultant effects of all practices are very similar. However, it is important to have research that distinguishes between the individual practices to validate them properly. Consequently, this situation demonstrates a need for more research in order to identify the use and benefits of Reiki specifically.

        The majority of the support for Reiki manifests itself in the anecdotal reports of those who are involved or have experienced the practice first hand. Reiki’s somewhat unique ability to reduce anxiety, stress, and pain, has, to a degree, been grounded through several empirical studies (Krieger, 1979; Witte & Dundes, 2001; Anderson 2001; Eichhorn, 2002). Horan (1995) commented that the practice is solely a spiritual one—focusing on the channeling of a universal energy through the practitioner and to the client. Therapeutic Touch, however, seems to be based more on the Western scientific understanding of the human body’s electromagnetic energy field. Although Reiki and Therapeutic Touch are foundationally different in their epistemology, Reiki produces similar results to Therapeutic Touch through similar facilitation (Krieger, 1979; Witte & Dundes, 2001; Anderson 2001; Eichhorn, 2002, Scales, 2001)). Antze and Lambek (1996 as cited in Eichhorn, 2002) contend that the subtle energy manipulation Reiki claims to use is rejected by Western individualistic ideology as a result of comprehending the body within a fixed point of reference. Krieger (1979) also contends that it is the unconventional nature of Eastern energy that Western culture does not understand and inevitably promotes condemnation. In other words, Reiki’s understanding of the energy shared between two people is rejected as it does not fit within a Western Newtonian scientific understanding. As a result of this rejection and limited understanding it is important to further research and support Reiki practice rather than continuing to conceptualize it through biased dogmatic societal perceptions. In light of this realization there have been a limited number of studies conducted to add to the knowledge and understanding of Reiki (Shiflett, Nayak, Bid, Miles, & Agostinelli, 2001; Witte & Dundes, 2001; Olson & Hansen, 1997 as cited in Anderson, 2001; Wardell & Engebretson, 2001; Scales, 2001; Schlitz & Braud, 1985).

        One of the earliest studies on Reiki was employed by Schlitz and Braud (1985). These researchers, through ethnographic investigation, looked at the efficacy of Reiki and its ability to affect physiology at a distance. To complete this task, they used three Reiki practitioners, each of whom completed five treatments on five different participants for a total of fifteen trials. Each condition began with the participant first being asked three questions pertaining to their belief in paranormal phenomena, their belief in unconventional methods of healing, and lastly their belief in the ability to heal without physical interaction. Following this interview process, each participant was introduced to their subsequent Reiki practitioner, and the details on Reiki as a healing modality and the particulars of the research were divulged. Once the interview and introduction period was complete, the participant was lead to a room approximately twenty feet away where they relaxed in a chair while listening to random ambient computer generated sounds and concentrated on random patterns of colored squares projected on the ceiling. For the duration of the treatment session, the Reiki practitioner was instructed at random to perform what the researchers termed thirty second epochs of either treatment or non-treatment. Biofeedback was used to measure each participant’s physiological response for each timed segment. These results were then input into a computer and the mean was calculated following completion of the session. The researchers reported that post-analysis findings were insignificant and the results achieved were those that would be expected by chance alone. These insignificant findings could be reflective of the obvious methodological flaws such as prepping participants by asking questions about their beliefs in CAMs as well as introducing them to the Reiki practitioners.

        More recently, Witte and Dundes (2001) conducted a study in which 100 undergraduate students were selected to participate in a randomized study to determine the efficacy of Reiki. The researchers administered a pre-test/post-test questionnaire on mental and physical relaxation along with taking blood pressure and heart rate readings. The undergraduate participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: a) Reiki treatment, b) Reiki placebo, c) Guided meditation, and d) Relaxing music. Each condition was separated by dividers and those administering the treatment conditions were matched for height, weight, hair color, and other general appearance factors in order to control for confounding results. The researchers found that initial ratings of stress dropped most significantly for both mental and physical stress by 3% and 4% respectively in the Reiki condition. Participant reports showed that 64% had reduced physical tension and stress which was found to be considerably higher than that of the other conditions (48% music, 36% meditation, and 24% placebo); there were no significant changes in scores for mental relaxation. Blood pressure and heart rate readings showed a decrease in both systolic and diastolic readings for all groups except the Reiki condition, which showed a subtle increase in pulse rate and diastolic blood pressure levels. The researchers attributed these effects to an increase in energy levels as a result of the treatment. They also noted that the results were consistent with previous research in so far as the participants were unable to distinguish between the formally trained and sham practitioners by administration mannerisms. It was concluded that Reiki was an efficacious way of reducing physical stress even when limited to a seated twenty minute treatment utilizing only five upper body hand positions. Similarly, Olson and Hansen (1997 as cited in Anderson, 2001) conducted a pilot study that found Reiki to be significantly effective in the reduction of pain.

        Although not specific to Reiki, Wardell and Engebretson (2001) studied relaxation and stress reduction found through the application of touch therapy. Using a repeated measures design with 23 healthy participants, they found touch therapy to be significant in reducing anxiety, decrease systolic blood pressure, and increase salivary immunoglobulin-A (IgA) – an important protective chemical produced by your immune system. They also noted electromyogram (EMG) readings dropped and skin temperature elevated. It was concluded that physiological and biochemical changes were significant, but more research is needed. These findings emphasize the similar effects found through healing touch modalities.

        Conversely, Shiflett, Nayak, Bid, Miles, and Agostinelli (2001), when looking at the effectiveness of Reiki as an adjunct healing method for sub-acute stroke victims, found no significant effect. Utilizing a double-blind methodology, they randomly assigned patients to one of four conditions: a) Reiki master, b) Reiki practitioner, c) Sham practitioner, and d) No treatment. There were a total of ten treatments over a 2 ½ week period. It is important to note, however, through post hoc analysis, the authors found subtle effects on mood and energy, which they concluded were not a result of placebo or attentional effects.

        Astin, Harkness, and Ernst (2000) as well as Ernst (2003) conducted a meta-analysis of distant healing modalities, which they operationalized as practices that consist of interaction between a healer and client for the purpose of improving or curing illness through the transfer of “supraphysical” energy (i.e., Reiki, Therapeutic Touch, Qigong, energy healing, faith healing, intracessory prayer, non-directed prayer, shamanic healing, and spiritual healing). Their analysis in 2000 and again in 2003 included only those studies that 1) randomly assigned participants, 2) controlled for placebo effects, 3) were peer reviewed, 4) studied humans with any medical conditions, and 5) were clinical and not experimental. From over 200 studies, they only found 23 that originally met the criteria of the first study in 2000 and only 17 were found in the follow up study in 2003. In the first publication by Astin, Harkness, and Ernst (2000), a sum of 23 studies totaling 2774 participants were reviewed. Of these, 11 focused on therapeutic touch, seven looked at other distant healing modalities, and five were concerned with prayer. In total, 57% (n = 13) of the studies looked at yielded significant results, 39% (n = 7) found no effects, and 0.4% (n = 1) produced negative effects. In the follow-up review conducted by Ernst (2003), 17 studies were evaluated. These publications consisted of 8 non-randomized and 9 randomized clinical trial studies. From the all of the studies Ernst (2003) looked at, only one focused on Reiki specifically. This study was the previously mentioned study by Wardell and Engebretson (2001).

Rationale

The amount of research on complementary and alternative practices is improving, with 85% more studies conducted between 2000 and 2002 than in 34 years prior to 2000 (Ernst, 2003). According to Parkman (2001), well over half of the population worldwide use complementary and alternative methods of healing. Sparber and Wootton (2001) found a substantial use of CAMs with prevalence rates as high as 83% (Richardson et al., 2000 as cited in Sparber & Wootton, 2001). However, as noted, with this research there are methodological problems with power, controlling for baseline measures, placebo controls, sample sizes, lack of inclusion criteria, group differences, operational definitions, and heavy reliance on the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Ernst, 2003; Anderson, 2001). Particularly in the consideration of Reiki, Witte and Dundes (2001) report that the majority of support for Reiki has been “ex-post-facto,” in other words, unresponsiveness to treatment results in conclusions of insignificance. The area of Reiki is important to study, not only to answer the increasing interest and need for scientific validation, thus efficacy, but also to ameliorate upon previous research. Furthermore, all of the research on Reiki, as well as other energy healing techniques, has focused on their ability to affect others; no consideration has been given to the benefits for practitioners.

As such, this study investigated Reiki by focusing on the practitioners and how they benefit from its use on themselves. This focus is important as a Reiki practitioner acts as a channel for healing energy. Furthermore, according the anecdotal reports this energy heals the practitioner when they use it on themselves and when they use it to heal others. Essentially, practitioners who use Reiki more frequently, practice for longer lengths of time, and attain higher levels of training will have greater well-being and a more unified sense of self. The goal was to investigate how Reiki practice, namely length and level, increases both psychological-and-spiritual well-being for the practitioner. Through the examination of the practitioner’s levels of transpersonality, spiritual identity, and absorption, and their relationship to depression, stress and anxiety, the efficacy of this practice in potentiating psychological and spiritual health will be better understood.

Hypotheses

For this research it was hypothesized that:

        1)   Those participants with longer lengths of practice will have higher scores on transpersonality (SELF-RP/T;
               SECT-R), spirituality (SIQ, SAS), and absorption (TAS), and lower scores on depression, anxiety, stress
               (DASS-21), and on social desirability (SDS-17).

        2)   Those participants with higher levels of Reiki training will report higher scores on transpersonality (SELF-RP/T,
               SECT-R), spirituality (SIQ, SAS), and absorption (TAS), and lower scores on depression, anxiety, and stress
               (DASS-21) and social desirability (SDS-17).

        3)   Reiki practitioners at the Master Level and those whose practice is above five years will have the highest scores on
               transpersonality (SELF-RP/T, SECT-R), spirituality (SIQ, SAS), absorption (TAS), and the lowest scores on
               depression, anxiety, stress (DASS-21) and social desirability (SDS-17).

        4)   The TAS will have significant positive correlations with the SIQ and SAS, but not the SELF-RP/T or the SECT-R.

        5)   The SELF-RP/T, SECT-R, SAS and SIQ will have significant negative correlations with the DASS-21 and
             SDS-17.

        6)   The SELF-RP/T and SECT-R will have low positive correlations with the SIQ, SAS and the TAS.

        7)   The SELF-RP will not significantly correlate with the SELF-RT or SECT-R.

Method
Data Collection
Participants

        Participants included various Reiki practitioners from Regina who were recruited through Reiki organizations. Of the 23 participants, 3 were male and 20 were female, with a mean age of 44.00 years (SD = 13.53). Participants were grouped according to length of practice (i.e., number of years) as well as level of training (i.e., level 1, level 2, or master). The frequencies were as follows: First (n = 6), Second (n = 9), Master (n = 8).

      On the demographics questions of “do you consider yourself to be a religious person?” and “do you consider yourself to be a spiritual person?” it was found that 10 participants reported being religious, while 13 responded as non-religious. To the question of spirituality, 22 people reported being spiritual, while only 1 participant responded as not being spiritual. In regards to the question of religious affiliation and for the purpose of analysis, the original 16 religious denominations were grouped into three categories – Christian (n = 14), agnostic/atheist (n = 2), and other (n = 7). Before grouping the original frequencies, they were as follows: other (n = 7), Roman Catholic (n = 6), Protestant (n = 6), agnostic (n = 2), and Lutheran (n = 1).

        In addition to religious affiliation, participants were asked to identify what other similar self-developing practices they have been involved in. Of the 23 respondents, 82.6% (n = 19) responded with meditation, 65.2% (n = 15) responded with prayer, 30.4% (n = 7) answered yoga, 26.1% (n = 6) responded with other non-specified practices, and 13.0% (n = 3) indicated martial arts involvement. There was one respondent who did not indicate participation in any other self-developing practice.

Instruments

In addition to a demographics sheet, a battery of 7 self-report measures were employed, which included the Self-Expansiveness Level Form – Revised (SELF-R; Friedman, 2001), the Self-Expansiveness Circles Test – Revised (SECT-R-R; Pappas & Friedman, 2002), the Spiritual Identity Questionnaire (SIQ; Pappas, 2005), the Spiritual Assessment Scale (SAS; Howden, 1992), the Tellegen Absorption Scale (TAS; Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974), the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale 21 (DASS-21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995), and the Social Desirability Scale – 17 (SDS-17; Stober 1999, 2001).
H

Spirituality Measures

Self-Expansiveness Level Form-Revised (Friedman, 2001):

The SELF-R (Friedman, 2001) consists of 18 items arranged in the standard Likert-scale format (5 = Strongly Agree to 1 = Strongly Disagree), which is based on the original SELF. The difference between these two measures is that the response format has been adapted to be more informative to participants. Based on the notions of self-concept, this measure produces scores in what Friedman (1981/1983) has defined as self-expansiveness, a measure of self-concept that corresponds to the dimensions of space and time. The SELF-R consists of three subscales, the personal (SELF-RP), the middle (SELF-RM), and the transpersonal (SELF-RT). These levels depict the degree to which an individuals self-concept is contracted or expanded spatially, and represents their temporal experience within the range of past, present (here and now), and future. The SELF-R has been found to have a reliability ranging from .70 to .82 (Friedman, 1981, 1983; MacDonald, Gagnier, & Friedman, 2000; MacDonald, Tsagarakis, & Holland, 1994 as cited in Pappas, 2001).

Self-Expansiveness Circles Test – Revised (Pappas & Friedman, 2002):

The SECT-R (Pappas & Friedman, 2002) is a 5-item measure created from the transpersonal subscale of the SELF-R. This measure also depicts self-concept in terms of self-expansiveness dimensions, but only uses those items found in the transpersonal subscale of the SELF-R. The defining difference, however, is that the SECT-R has shown advantages over the SELF and SELF-R through its utilization of Venn-like varying degrees of overlapping circles. For each question the answer is depicted as a pictorial representation of the person’s self-concept. The degree to which the circles overlap represents, as chosen by the individual, their level of self-expansiveness for each dimension. This measure is still answered in 5-point Likert scale format (5 = Strongly Agree to 1 = Strongly Disagree). As the SECT-R was developed from the SELF and SELF-R, it measures the same concepts, but in a more visually descriptive way. The SECT-R has been found to have convergent correlation with the SELF-TS and the SELF-R-TS with coefficients ranging from .55 to .75 (Pappas, 2003) and would be expected to produce similar results for this study. Furthermore, by utilizing both measures, we can not only substantiate our findings with the SELF-R, but also further validate the SECT-R as a reliable and valid measure of self-expansiveness.

Spiritual Identity Questionnaire (Pappas, 2005):

The original Transcendence Identity Inventory measure (TII; Pappas, 2004) is a theoretically and empirically driven instrument. It was originally based on 60-items that is scored on a 5-point Likert scale (5 = Strongly Agree to 1 = Strongly Disagree). The TII has since been factored and reduced to the 35-item Spiritual Identity Questionnaire (SIQ; Pappas, 2005). According to Pappas (2005, works in progress), the SIQ consists of 3 subscales: Spiritual Transcendence, Spiritual Resilience, and Spiritual Affinity, which measure spiritual well-being. Spiritual Transcendence (SIQ-ST) measures the extent to which identity dissolves through and beyond spatial temporal boundaries to deepened unifying experiences of physicalness and timelessness. Spiritual Resilience (SIQ-SR) measures the extend to which unity with purpose, meaning and hope, for example, provide inner strength where the individual is of "service to oneself." Spiritual Affinity (SIQ-SA) measures the extent to which unity with such concepts as kinship to nature, empathy, and forgiveness, for example, of others increase an individuals sense of "being a service to others." The SIQ and the three corresponding subscales have consistently demonstrated excellent alpha reliability coefficients (r =.93 to .95) in students, meditators, yoga participants, and martial artists.

Spiritual Assessment Scale (Howden, 1992):

The Spiritual Assessment Scale (SAS; Howden, 1992) is a 28-item, 6-point Likert assessment with 6 being "Strongly Agree" to 1 being "Strongly Disagree." This instrument measures an individual's conception of spirituality through the use of four subscales: unifying interconnectedness (SAS-U), purpose and meaning in life (SAS-PM), innerness (SAS-I), and transcendence (SAS-T). The SAS has been found by MacDonald, LeClair, Holland, Alter and Friedman (1995) to have an internal consistency of .92 as well as content, factorial and criterion validity.

Tellegen Absorption Scale (Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974):

The Tellegen Absorption Scale (TAS; Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974) is a 34-item self-report measure again based on a 5-point Likert scale (5 = Always to 1 = Never). This scale measures not only reality absorption—the total immersion in real life events such as movies or acting, but also incorporates fantasy absorption, which is considered a vivid daydream-like experience (Pappas, 2000). Furthermore, Pappas (2000) reports that absorption has been shown to correlate moderately with hypnotic ability (r = .40), and hypnotizability in clinical and non-clinical populations (r = .32 to r = .44; r = .13 to r = .89); specifically, the TAS has displayed internal reliability (r = .88), and test-retest reliability (r = .91). In addition, there have been no significant gender differences found (Roche & McConkey, 1990 as cited in Pappas 2000).

Psychological Measures of Mental Health
Depression Anxiety Stress Scale – 21 (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995)

Psychological well-being was measured using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995), a shortened version of the original 42-item self-report screening and outcome questionnaire. This scale measures depression, anxiety, and stress, as reflected over the past 7 days, and is based on a dimensional rather than categorical conception of psychological disorder. The DASS-21 is answered in a standard Likert scale format ranging from 0 – “did not apply to me at all” to 3 – “applied to me very much, or most of the time.” The DASS-21 consists of three subscales: depression (DASS-21-D), anxiety (DASS-21-A), and stress (DASS-21-S). The DASS-21 has been found to have both reliability and validity. With the Beck Depression Scale (BDI), the DASS-21 was found to have a correlation of .74, as well as a correlation of .81 with the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI; Devilly, 2004). Furthermore, through several test-retest trials, the DASS-21 has been found to hold reliability for all subscales (.71, .79, and.81 for depression, anxiety, and stress respectively; Brown et al., 1997 as cited in Devilly, 2004).

Social Desirability Scale – 17 (Stöber, 1999):

The SDS-17 (Social Desirability Scale-17; Stöber, 1999) was used to bring reliability and validity to this study's results. The scale consists of 16 items, in a true/false format, that measure an individual’s tendency to depict themselves with socially desirable attitudes. That is, it measures the extent to which participants falsely see themselves in a positive way or favoring socially appropriate responses. For the purposes of this study, the true/false answer format was recoded to give participants a numeric score value for each question (True = 0/1 & False = 0/1 - question dependent).Test re-test analyses found high levels of reliability with correlations ranging from .71 to .91, and coefficient alphas ranging from .83 to .91 (Hill, Huelsman, Furr, Kibler, Vincente, & Kennedy, 2004).

Procedure

Upon approval from the University of Regina board of Ethics (Appendix A), the questionnaires along with briefing/debriefing sheets as well as consent forms were arranged into booklet format and dropped off at various locations in both Regina. On May 17,2005 a supplementary attachment (Appendix B) was added to the original ethics approval to allow for participants to be contacted in Saskatoon. From these sites the booklets were distributed to different Reiki practitioners around the corresponding areas. Each participant was instructed to fill out the questionnaires at their leisure and to read carefully the briefing and consent pages of the booklets to ensure they were fully aware of what the study proposed and what their involvement would entail. Participants received a booklet containing the briefing (Appendix C), consent form (Appendix D), debriefing (Appendix E), demographics (Appendix F), the DASS-21 (Appendix G), the IMAS (Appendix H), the SDS-17 (Appendix I), the SELF-RT (Appendix J), the TAS (Appendix K), the SECT-R-T (Appendix L), the SAS (Appendix M), and the SIQ (Appendix N). It was explained in the briefing sheet that participants were to remove the first two sheets of the booklet (briefing, consent form, and debriefing) to ensure anonymity and to signify their consent to participate in the study. Each practitioner filled out the battery of questionnaires at their leisure and then returned them to the distribution centers. None of the participants of this study received compensation or reward for their participation, which was explained on the consent form included with the booklet.

Results

For the purposes of this study, one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs), Pearson’s Product Moment Correlations, and regression analyses were conducted. Exploratory analysis were run on the questionnaires to establish what measures do or do not correlate for the purposes of validating both the measures and this study. Further analysis was conducted on the reliability of the measures employed within the study, for which Cronbach’s alpha coefficients are reported. For all analyses, significance was set at .05 unless otherwise stated.

Reliability Analyses

        Reliability analyses were run on all of the measures and the corresponding subscales to attain Cronbach’s alpha (α) values. Each measure was assessed to determine its approximate level of efficacy for this study. For the purposes of this study, reliability was run only on those measures and/or subscales that were used in the final analyses of data. Only the alpha coefficients, number of items, and number of cases will be reported. All items for all measures were answered by each participant. A total of 23 participants made up the sample for this study, thus for all reliability analyses, N = 23.

        Reliability analysis on the Spiritual Identity Questionnaire total (SIQ-Tot, 35 items) obtained excellent alpha coefficients (.9239). The spiritual transcendence subscale (SIQ-ST, 9 items) obtained .9013, where the spiritual resilience (SIQ-SR, 9 items) and spiritual affinity (SIQ-SA, 7 items) subscale obtained .8802 and .7368 respectively. The SELF-R subscales used for this study produced considerably higher alpha coefficients. The SELF-R personal subscale (SELF-RP) obtained an alpha of .8969 with only 5 items, and the SELF-R transpersonal subscale (SELF-RT) attained an alpha of .8236 with only 5 items. Conversely, the SECT-R with only 5 items made up of the SELF-RT only obtained an alpha coefficient of .6974. Analyses of reliability on all 28 items of the Spiritual Assessment Scale (SAS-Tot) obtained high alpha values (.9039), 4 items on the SAS-PM (.8195), 9 items on the SAS-I (.8849) on, 9 items on the SAS-U (.6897), and 6 items on the SAS-T (.6051).

        Reliability analysis for the Tellegen Absorption Scale (TAS), 34 items inclusive, produced an excellent Cronbach’s alpha value of .9174. Reliability analyses on the DASS-21 demonstrated alpha coefficients for the DASS-21-Tot (α = .7512), which included all 21 items. For the 7 items of the DASS-21-D, the alpha obtained was .6807. Conversely, for the 7 items of the DASS-21-A (α = .3838) and the 7 items of the DASS-21-S (α = .4471), alpha coefficients were considerably lower than the DASS-21-Tot and DASS-21-D (.7512; .6807). Reliability for the SDS-17 produced an alpha coefficient of .7995 for all 16 items. This result is somewhat higher than the former DASS-21 and its corresponding subscales.

Demographics

The following demographic variables produced no significant relationships using Analysis of Variance, t-Test, and Pearson Correlation on any of the measures used in this study: age, gender, religious affiliation, religious person, and spiritual person.

Hypothesis 1
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to examine the relationship between the length of time practicing Reiki and the SELF-RP/T, SECT-R, SIQ-ST, SIQ-SR, SIQ-SA, SAS, TAS, DASS-21, and SDS-17. It was hypothesized that those with longer lengths of time spent practicing would score higher on transpersonality, spirituality, absorption, and psychological well-being while scoring lower on social desirability. For analysis purposes, length of time was grouped into 3 categories: Group 1 – less than 5 years, Group 2 – 5-10 years, and Group 3 – 10 + years of practice). Table 1 presents the ANOVA statistics for length of Reiki practice. No significant results were found between groups on the measures of SELF-RP, SECT-R, SIQ-ST, SIQ-SR, SIQ-SA, SAS, TAS, DASS-21, or SDS-17 (all F < 3.07, p > .07). Of all the measures considered for this analysis, only the SELF-RT was found to have significant differences, F (2, 20) = 6.94, p < .01, MSe = 9.19, with the 5-10 years group obtaining higher transpersonal self-expansiveness scores (M = 22.80, SD = 2.23) than the less than five years group (M = 18.00, SD = 2.67) and the 10 + years group (M = 17.86, SD = 4.10).

Post-hoc analysis revealed that those in the less than 5 years group differed significantly from the 5-10 years group, with the latter scoring significantly higher on the measure of transpersonal self-expansiveness (MD = -4.88, p < .05). There was no significant difference between the less than five years group and the 10+ years group as revealed by the post-hoc analysis (MD = .14, p > 1.00). Analysis revealed that there was a significant difference, however, between those in the 5-10 years group and those in the 10+ years group, with the 5-10 years group scoring higher on the transpersonal scale of the SELF-R (MD = -5.02, p < .05).

Hypothesis 2
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

One-way analysis of variance was used to examine the relationship between the levels of Reiki training (level 1, level 2, Master) and participant scores on the SELF-RP/T, SECT-R, SIQ-ST, SIQ-SR, SIQ-SA, SAS, TAS, DASS-21, and SDS-17. It was hypothesized that those who held higher levels of Reiki training would score higher on transpersonality, spirituality, absorption, and psychological well-being while scoring lower on social desirability. Table 2 presents the significant ANOVA statistics for level of Reiki training.

There were no significant differences found between groups on the measures of, SELF-RP/T, SECT-R, SIQ-SR, SIQ-SA, SAS-PM, SAS-U, TAS, DASS-21-S, or SDS-17 (all F < 3.02, p > .07).

Spiritual Identity Questionnaire (SIQ)

Significant differences were also found between the level of Reiki training and the SIQ-Tot (F (2, 20) = 7.81, p < .01, MSe = 107.07), with master level showing the highest scores (M = 167.38, SD = 10.70), then level 2 (M = 151.44, SD = 11.18), and finally level 1 training group scoring the lowest (M = 147.33, SD = 8.24). Post-hoc analysis revealed the greatest difference lay between Level 1 and master level (MD = -20.04, p < .01) and level 2 and master (MD = -15.93, p < .05). There were no significant differences between level 1 and level 2 (MD = -4.11, p > 1.00).

Further significance was found between the level of training and the SIQ-ST, F (2, 20) = 8.56, p < .01, MSe = 57.60, with master level scoring the highest (M = 81.13, SD = 10.25), level 2 (M = 69.22, SD = 5.87), and level 1 obtaining the lowest (M = 65.50, SD = 5.32). Post-hoc analysis revealed the greatest mean differences lay between level 1 and master (MD = -15.63, p< .01) and level 2 and master (MD = -11.90, p < .05). There were no significant differences found between level 1 and level 2 (MD = -3.72, p > 1.00).

Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21)

One-way analysis of variance found significant differences were found between groups on the DASS-21-Tot, F (2, 20) = 4.99, p < .05, MSe = 13.64, with level 1 showing the highest scores (M = 10.67, SD = 4.63), level 2 following (M = 6.78, SD = 3.63), and master level obtaining the lowest scores (M = 4.38, SD = 2.93). Significance was also found between groups on the DASS-21-D, F (2, 20) = 6.33, p < .01, MSe = 2.05, with Reiki level 1 scoring the highest (M = 3.50, SD = 2.26), followed by Reiki level 2 (M = 2.00, SD = 1.23), and finally Reiki master (M = .75, SD = .71).

On the DASS-21-Tot, post-hoc analysis showed a significant difference between level 1 and master (MD = 6.29, p < .05). Similarly, for the DASS-21-D post-hoc analysis revealed a significant difference between level 1 and master (MD = 2.75, p < .01). There were no significant differences between level 1 and level 2 or level 2 and master on either the DASS-21-D (MD = 1.50, p > .18; MD = 1.25, p > .26) or DASS-21-Tot (MD = 3.89, p > .18; MD = 2.40, p > .59).

Social Desirability Scale – 17 (SDS-17)

There were no significant differences found between any groups on the measures of social desirability (SDS-17), self-expansiveness (SELF-RP/T & SECT-R), absorption (TAS), purpose and meaning (SAS-PM), unifying interconnectedness (SAS-U), spiritual resilience (SIQ-SR), or spiritual affinity (SIQ-SA) (all F < 2.17, p > .14).

Hypothesis 3
One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Hypothesis three predicted that those individuals who held longer lengths of practice and higher levels of training would score higher on transpersonality, spirituality, absorption, and psychological well-being while scoring lower on social desirability. For purposes of analysis three groups were created: Group 1— Those with less than 5 years practice and no master level training, Group 2—Those with 5+ years of practice but without holding a Master level of training, and Group 3—Those who hold a Master Level and have practiced for 5+ years. A one-way analysis of variance was used to determine the significant differences between the groups. Table 3 presents the one way analysis of variance statistics for length of practice and level of training.

Spiritual Identity Questionnaire (SIQ)

Significant differences were found between groups on the SIQ-Tot, F (2, 20) = 7.85, p < .01, MSe = 106.85, where group 3 scored the highest (M = 167.38, SD = 10.70), followed by group 1 (M = 151.75, SD = 5.78), and finally group 2 with the lowest scores (M = 147.57, SD = 13.55). Post-hoc analysis revealed the two greatest differences lay between group 1 and group 3 (MD = -15.63, p < .05) and group 2 and group 3 (MD = -19.80, p <.01). There was no significant difference found, however, between group 1 and 2 (MD = 4.18, p > 1.00).

Additional, significant differences were found between groups on the SIQ-ST, F (2, 20) = 7.89, p < .01, MSe = 59.74, group 3 obtained the highest scores (M = 81.13, SD = 10.25), followed by group 1 (M = 68.38, SD = 5.88), followed by group 2 with the lowest scores (M = 67.00, SD = 6.03). Post-hoc analysis revealed the greatest differences lay between group 1 and group 3 (MD = -12.75, p < .05) at significance and group 2 and group 3 (MD = -14.13, p < .01). There were no significant differences between group 1 and 2 (MD = 1.38, p > 1.00).

Spirituality Assessment Scale (SAS)

        One-way analysis of variance demonstrated that there were significant differences between the SAS-Tot (F (2, 20) = 4.51, p < .05, MSe = 85.52), where group 3 obtained the highest scores (M = 150.00, SD = 10.13), group 1 obtained the second highest scores (M = 141.30, SD = 7.25), while group 2 displayed the lowest scores (M = 135.86, SD = 10.21). Post-hoc analysis revealed the most significant difference lay between group 2 and group 3 (MD = -14.14, p < .05). There were no significant differences found between groups 1 and 2 (MD = 5.39, p > .82) or between groups 1 and group 3 (MD = -8.75, p > .22).

      Significant differences were also found groups on the SAS-I, F (2, 20) = 5.56, p <. 05, MSe = 14.59), with group 3 scoring the highest (M = 52.00, SD = 4.83), followed by Group 1 (M = 48.50, SD = 3.63), and group 2 obtaining the lowest scores (M = 45.40, SD = 4.83). Post-hoc analysis revealed the greatest mean difference lay between group 2 and group 3 (MD = -6.57, p < .05). There were no significant differences between group 1 and group 2 (MD = .07, p > .41) or between group 1 and group 3 (MD = -3.50, p > .25).

        Further significant differences were found between groups on the measure of the SAS-T, F (2, 20) = 11.24, p < .001, MSe = 3.82, where group 3 obtained the highest mean value (M = 33.38, SD = 1.69), followed by group 2 (M = 29.57, SD = 1.90), and lastly group 1 with the lowest mean value (M = 29.13, SD = 2.23). Post-hoc analysis for this measure revealed the greatest differences lay between group 1 and group 3 (MD = -4.25, p < .001) and group 2 and group 3 (MD = -3.80, p < .01). There were no significant differences between groups 1 and 2 (MD = -.45, p > 1.00).

Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale – 21 (DASS-21)

The ANOVA revealed significant differences between groups 1, 2, and 3 (M = 7.12, SD = 2.42; M = 9.71, SD = 5.79; M = 4.38, SD = 2.92) respectively, on the DASS-21-Tot (F (2, 20) = 3.53, p< .05, MSe = 15.11). Post-hoc analysis for the DASS-21-Tot showed that the greatest mean differences lay between group 2 and group 3 (MD = 5.34, p < .05). There were no significant differences between group 1 and group 2 (MD = -2.59, p > .64), or between group 1 and group 3 (MD = 2.75, p > .52).

One-way analysis of variance also found significant differences between those who have practiced for Group 1 (M = 2.50, SD = 1.41), Group 2 (M = 2.71, SD = 2.29), and Group 3 (M = .75, SD = .71) on the DASS-21-D (F (2, 20) = 3.69, p<.05, MSe = 2.45). Post-hoc analysis showed that there were no significant differences between any of the groups (MD < 1.96, p > .07).

Hypothesis 4

Hypothesis 4 predicted the TAS to have significant positive relationships with the SIQ and SAS while obtaining no relationship to the SELF-RP/T or SECT-R. To examine this hypothesis Pearson’s Product Moment correlation was conducted on the TAS, SIQ-ST, SIQ-SR, SIQ-SA, SAS, SELF-RP/T, and SECT-R. As hypothesized, the TAS did not correlate with the SELF-RP (r = .09, p > .34), the SELF-RT (r = .22, p > .16), or the SECT-R (r = .07, p > .38). Furthermore, as the TAS also did not correlate with either the SIQ-ST (r = .25, p > .12), SIQ-SR (r = .26, p > .11), SIQ-SA (r = -.22, p > .16), SAS-Tot (r = .11, p > .31)), SAS-PM (r = .06, p > .40), SAS-I (r = -.02, p > .47), SAS-U (r = .11, p > .32), or the SAS-T (r = .29, p > .10), the first part of the hypothesis has been refuted.

Hypothesis 5

      Hypothesis 5 postulated that the SELF-RP/T, SECT-R, SAS and SIQ would obtain significant negative correlations with the DASS-21 and SDS-17. Pearson Product Moment correlation was used to examine the predicted negative relationship between these measures. Table 4 presents the significant correlation coefficients for the SELF-RP, DASS, and SIQ.
Pearson’s Product Moment Correlations

      No significant negative correlations were found between the SELF-RP/T, SECT-R, SAS, and SIQ with the SDS-17 (r = .17, p > .22; r = .18, p > .21; r = -.02, p > .46). Significant negative correlations were found, however, between the SELF-RP and the DASS-21-Tot (r = -.49, p < .01), DASS-21-A (r = -.57, p < .01), and the DASS-21-S (r = -.59, p < .01).

      There was no significant negative correlation found between the SECT-R and the DASS-21-Tot (r = .05, p > .41). Significant negative correlations were found between the SIQ-ST and the DASS-21-Tot (r = -.36) as well as between the SIQ-SR and the DASS-Tot (r = -.61, p < .01), DASS-21-D (r = -.36), DASS-21-A (r = -.61, p < .01), and DASS-21-S (r = -.51, p < .01). Furthermore, the SIQ-Tot negatively correlated with the DASS-21-Tot (r = -.53, p < .01), DASS-21-D (r = -.42), DASS-21-A (r = -.42), and DASS-21-S (r = -.40). Negative correlations were obtained between the SAS-Tot and DASS-21-Tot (r = -.54, p < .01), DASS-21-D (r = -.46), DASS-21-A (r = -.46), and DASS-21-S (r = -.36) as predicted. Conversely, the SAS-Tot was found to have significant positive correlations with the SDS-17 (r = .44).

      As hypothesized, negative correlations were found between the SAS-PM and DASS-21-Tot (r = -.60, p < .01), DASS-21-D (r = -.38), DASS-21-A (r = -.57, p < .01), and DASS-21-S (r = -.49, p < .01). However, the SAS-PM had significant positive correlations with the SDS-17 (r = .48). Furthermore, the SAS-I obtained significant negative correlations with the DASS-21-Tot (r = -.55, p < .01, DASS-21-D (r = -.47), DASS-21-A (r = -.41), and DASS-21-S (r = -.41). Conversely, the SAS-I obtained significant positive correlations with the SDS-17 (r = .51, p < .01). The SAS-U was also found to have significant negative correlations with the DASS-21-Tot (r = -.41), DASS-21-D (r = -.42), DASS-21-A (r = -.41), but not with the DASS-21-S (r = -.19, p > .20). Conversely, significant positive correlations were obtained between the SAS-U and the SDS-17 (r = .37).

Linear Regression

        Regression analyses found that the SELF-RP significantly predicted higher scores on the DASS-21-Tot, β = -.49, t (21) = 21.19, p < .01. SELF-RP also explained a significant portion of the variance in scores on the DASS-21-Tot, R2 = .24, F (1, 21) = 6.47, p < .05. SELF-RP significantly predicted higher scores on the Anxiety (DASS-21-A), β = -.57, t (21) = 29.4, p < .01. The SELF-RP also explained a significant portion of the variance in the scores Anxiety, R2 = .32, F (1, 21) = 9.91, p < .01. Similarly, SELF-RP significantly predicted higher scores on stress (DASS-21-S), β = -.59, t (21) = 23.1, p < .01. Furthermore, SELF-RP also explained a significant portion of the variance on stress scores, R2 = .35, F (1, 21) = 11.08, p < .01.

        Although there was a significant correlation between the SIQ-ST and the DASS-21-Tot, regression analysis showed that the SIQ-ST did not significantly predict scores on the DASS-21-Tot, β = -.36, t (21) = 20.62, p = .093. Furthermore, the SIQ-ST did not explain a significant portion of the variance in scores on the DASS-21-Tot, R2 = .13, F (1, 21) = 3.1, p = .093. Similarly, although there was a significant correlation between the SIQ-SR and the DASS-21-D, regression analysis showed that SIQ-SR scores did not significantly predict scores on depression, β = -.36, t (21) = 27.50, p = .091. In addition, the SIQ-SR did not explain a significant portion of the variance in DASS-21-D scores, R2 = .13, F (1, 21) = 3.14, p = .091.

        Regression analysis found that SIQ-SR scores significantly predicted higher scores on the DASS-21-Tot, β = -.61, t (21) = 27.21, p < .01. SIQ-SR scores also explained a significant portion of the variance on total depression, anxiety, and stress scores (DASS-21-Tot), R2 = .37, F (1, 21) = 12.26, p < .01. SIQ-SR significantly predicted higher scores on anxiety (DASS-21-A), β = -.61, t (21) = 34.96, p < .01. SIQ-SR scores also explained a significant portion of the variance in DASS-21-A scores, R2 = .37, F (1, 21) = 12.10, p < .01. Similarly, SIQ-SR scores significantly predicted higher scores on the DASS-21-S, β = -.51, t (21) = 24.35, p < .05. SIQ-SR scores also explained a significant portion of the variance in stress scores (DASS-21-S), R2 = .26, F (1, 21) = 7.35, p < .05. SIQ-Tot significantly predicted higher scores on depression (DASS-21-D), β = -.42, t (21) = 41.87, p < .05. SIQ-Tot scores also explained a significant portion of the variance in Depression (DASS-21-D) scores, R2 = .18, F (1,21) = 4.59, p < .05. SIQ-Tot significantly predicted higher scores on Anxiety (DASS-21-A), β = -.42, t (21) = 44.12, p < .05. SIQ-Tot scores also explained a significant portion of the variance in DASS-21-A scores, R2 = .18, F (1, 21) = 4.50, p < .05.

        Although there was a significant correlation found between SIQ-Tot scores and DASS-21-S, regression analysis showed that the SIQ-Tot scores did not significantly predict scores on the stress (DASS-21-S), β = -.40, t (21) = 32.71, p = .056. Furthermore, the SIQ-Tot did not explain a significant portion of the variance in DASS-21-S scores, R2 = .16, F (1, 21) = 4.10, p = .056. Conversely, SIQ-Tot scores significantly predicted higher scores on the DASS-21-Tot, β = -.53, t (21) = 36.22, p < .05. SIQ-Tot scores also explained a significant portion of the variance on total scores on depression, anxiety, and stress (DASS-21-Tot), R2 = .28, F (1, 21) = 8.01, p < .05.

        Regression analyses found that the SAS-Tot scores significantly predicted lower scores on the DASS-21-D, β = -.46, t (21) = -2.36, p < .05. Furthermore, the SAS-Tot also explained a significant portion of the variance in scores on the DASS-21-D, R2 = .21, F (1, 21) = 5.55, p < .05. Conversely, although there was a significant correlation found between SAS-PM scores and DASS-21-D, regression analysis showed that the SAS-PM scores did not significantly predict scores on the DASS-21-D, β = -.38, t (21) = -1.90, p = .07. Furthermore, the SAS-PM did not predict a significant portion of the variance in scores on the DASS-21-D, R2 = .15, F (1, 21) = 3.60, p = .07. Regression analyses conducted on the SAS-I showed that it significantly predicted lower scores on the DASS-21-D, β = -.47, t (21) = -2.41, p < .01. The SAS-I also explained a significant portion of the variance in scores on the DASS-21-D, R2 = .22, F (1, 21) = 5.82, p < .05. In addition, regression analyses found that the SAS-U significantly predicted lower scores on the DASS-21-D, β = -.42, t (21) = -2.13, p < .05, and also explained a significant portion of the variance on the DASS-21-D, R2 = .18, F (1, 21) = 4.55, p < .05.

      Similarly, the regression conducted on the SAS-Tot found that this measure significantly predicted lower scores on the DASS-21-A, β = -.47, t (21) = -2.42, p < .05. Furthermore, the SAS-Tot also explained a significant portion of the variance in scores on the DASS-21-A, R2 = .22, F (1, 21) = 5.84, p < .05. Moreover, regression analyses also found that the SAS-PM significantly predicted lower scores on the DASS-21-A, β = -.57, t (21) = -3.21, p < .01, and explained a significant portion of the variance in scores on the DASS-21-A, R2 = .33, F (1, 21) = 10.33, p < .01. Conversely, although there was a significant correlation found between SAS-I scores and DASS-21-A, regression analysis showed that the SAS-I scores did not significantly predict scores on the DASS-21-A, β = -.41, t (21) = -2.04, p = .05. Furthermore, the SAS-I did not predict a significant portion of the variance in scores on the DASS-21-A, R2 = .17, F (1, 21) = 4.17, p = .05.

        In addition, the significant correlation found between SAS-U scores and DASS-21-A was not substantiated as the regression analysis showed, the SAS-U scores did not significantly predict scores on the DASS-21-D, β = -.41, t (21) = -2.10, p = .05. Furthermore, the SAS-U did not predict a significant portion of the variance in scores on the DASS-21-A, R2 = .17, F (1, 21) = 4.25, = > .05. Similarly, the significant correlation found between SAS-Tot scores and DASS-21-S was also unsubstantiated as regression analysis showed that the SAS-Tot scores did not significantly predict scores on the DASS-21-S, β = -.36, t (21) = -1.79, p = .09. Furthermore, the SAS-Tot did not predict a significant portion of the variance in scores on the DASS-21-S, R2 = .13, F (1, 21) = 3.21, p = .09.

        Furthermore, regression analyses found that the SAS-PM significantly predicted lower scores on the DASS-21-S, β = -.49, t (21) = -2.58, p < .05, and the SAS-PM also explained a significant portion of the variance in scores on the DASS-21-S, R2 = .21, F (1, 21) = 6.64, p < .05. Although there was a significant correlation found between SAS-I scores and DASS-21-S, regression analysis showed that the SAS-I scores did not significantly predict scores on the DASS-21-S, β = -.41, t (21) = -2.03, p = .06. Furthermore, the SAS-I did not predict a significant portion of the variance in scores on the DASS-21-S, R2 = .16, F (1, 21) = 4.12, p = .06.

        Moreover, regression analyses found that the SAS-Tot significantly predicted lower scores on the DASS-21-Tot, β = -.54, t (21) = -2.94, p < .01. SAS-Tot also explained a significant portion of the variance in scores on the DASS-21-Tot, R2 = .29, F (1, 21) = 8.62, p < .01. Regression analyses also found that the SAS-PM to significantly predict lower scores on the DASS-21-Tot, β = -.60, t (21) = -3.40, p < .01. The SAS-PM also explained a significant portion of the variance in scores on the DASS-21-Tot, R2 = .33, F (1, 21) = 11.59, p < .01. Furthermore, regression analyses found that the SAS-I significantly predicted lower scores on the DASS-21-Tot, β = -.55, t (21) = -2.99, p < .01, and also explained a significant portion of the variance in scores on the DASS-21-Tot, R2 = .30, F (1, 21) = 8.92, p < .01. In contrast, although there was a significant correlation found between SAS-U scores and DASS-21-Tot, regression analysis showed that the SAS-U scores did not significantly predict scores on the DASS-21-Tot, β = -.41, t (21) = -2.04, p = .05. Furthermore, the SAS-U did not predict a significant portion of the variance in scores on the DASS-21-Tot, R2 = .17, F (1, 21) = 4.17, p = .05.

        Regression analyses found that the SAS-Tot significantly predicted higher scores on the SDS-17, β = .44, t (21) = 2.23, p < .05. SAS-Tot also explained a significant portion of the variance in scores on the SDS-17, R2 = .19, F (1, 21) = 4.98, p < .05. Furthermore, regression analyses found that the SAS-PM significantly predicted higher scores on the SDS-17, β = .48, t (21) = 2.50, p < .01. SAS-PM also explained a significant portion of the variance in scores on the SDS-17, R2 = .23, F (1, 21) = 6.20, p < .05. In addition, the regression analyses showed that the SAS-I significantly predicted higher scores on the SDS-17, β = .51, t (21) = 2.73, p < .05, and explained a significant portion of the variance in scores on the SDS-17, R2 = .26, F (1, 21) = 7.50, p < .05. Conversely, although there was a significant correlation found between SAS-U scores and SDS-17, regression analysis showed that the SAS-U scores did not significantly predict scores on the SDS-17, β = .37, t (21) = 1.83, p = .08. Furthermore, the SAS-U did not predict a significant portion of the variance in scores on the SDS-17, R2 = .14, F (1, 21) = 3.36, p = .08.

Hypothesis 6

Hypothesis 6 proposed that the SELF-RP/T and SECT-R would obtain low positive correlations with the SIQ, SAS and the TAS. Pearson Product Moment correlation was conducted to examine this hypothesis. Table 5 presents the significant correlation coefficients pertaining to hypothesis 6.

Pearson Product Moment Correlations

Contrary to this hypothesis, the SELF-RP was found to have significant positive correlation with the SIQ-SR (r =.58, p < .01), SIQ-SA (r = .52, p < .01), as well as with SIQ-tot (r = .48). Furthermore, the SELF-RT was found to have significant positive correlations with the SIQ-ST (r = .42), and the SIQ-Tot (r = .45). The SELF-RT did not have any significant correlations with the SAS-Tot (r = .08, p > .35), SAS-PM (r = .00, p > .50), SAS-I (r = .06, p > .39), SAS-U (r = .15, p > .25), or SAS-T (r = .05, p > .40). In addition, the SELF-RP was found to have significant positive correlation with the SAS-PM (r = .48) and SAS-I (r = .36).The SELF-RP did not have significant correlations with the SAS-Tot (r = .32, p > .07), SAS-U (r = .23, p > .14), SAS-T (r = -.00, p > .49), or TAS (r = .09, p > .34). Furthermore the SELF-RT was found to have no significant correlations with the TAS (r = .22, p > .16).

As hypothesized the SECT-R was found to have significant correlations with the SIQ-ST (r = .55, p < .01) as well as with the SIQ-Tot (r = .53, p < .01). There were no significant correlations found between the SECT-R and the SAS-Tot (r = .04, p > .42), SAS-PM (r = -.13, P > .27), SAS-I (r = .03, p > .44), SAS-U (r = .11, P > .31), SAS-T (r = .07, P > .37), or TAS (r = .07, p > .38).

Linear Regression

        Regression analyses for hypothesis 6 found that the SIQ-SR total scores significantly predicted higher scores on the SELF-RP, β = .58, t (21) = 3.28, p < .01. Spiritual resilience (SIQ-SR) scores also explained a significant portion of the variance in SELP-RP scores, R2 = .34, F (1, 21) = 10.75, p < .01. Similarly, spiritual affinity (SIQ-SA) scores significantly predicted higher scores on the SELF-R personal subscale (SELF-RP), β = .52, t (21) = 2.82, p < .05. SIQ-SA scores were also found to explained a significant portion of the variance in SELF-RP scores, R2 = .28, F (1, 21) = 8.00, p < .05. Furthermore, the total scores for the SIQ significantly predicted higher scores on the personal subscale of the SELF-R, β = .48, t (21) = 2.50, p < .05. SIQ-Tot scores also explained a significant portion of the variance in SELF-RP scores, R2 = .23, F (1, 21) = 6.21, p < .05. In addition, spiritual transcendence (SIQ-ST) scores significantly predicted higher scores on the transpersonal subscale of the SELF-R, β = .42, t (21) = 2.10, p < .05. SIQ-ST scores also explained a significant portion of the variance in SELF-RT scores, R2 = .17, F (1, 21) = 4.39, p < .05. SIQ-Tot scores significantly predicted higher scores on the transpersonal subscale of the SELF-R, β = .45, t (21) = 2.32, p < .05. SIQ-Tot scores also explained a significant portion of the variance in SELF-RT scores, R2 = .20, F (1, 21) = 5.36, p < .05.

        Spiritual transcendence (SIQ-ST) scores significantly predicted higher scores on the SECT-R, β = .55, t (21) = 3.03, p < .01. SIQ-ST scores also explained a significant portion of the variance in Self-Expansiveness Circles Test scores, R2 = .31, F (1, 21) = 9.21, p < .01. Total scores on the SIQ significantly predicted higher scores on the SECT-R, β = .53, t (21) = 2.85, p < .05. And, in addition, SIQ-Tot scores also explained a significant portion of the variance in SECT-R scores, R2 = .28, F (1, 21) = 8.15, p < .05.

        Regression analyses found that the SELF-RP significantly predicted higher scores on the SAS-PM , β = .48, t (21) = 2.50, p < .05. Furthermore, the SELF-RP also explained a significant portion of the variance in scores on the SAS-PM , R2 = .23, F (1, 21) = 6.28, p < .05. However, although there was a significant correlation found between SELF-RP scores and SAS-I, regression analysis showed that the SELF-RP scores did not significantly predict scores on the SAS-I, β = .36, t (21) = 1.74, p = .10, or predict a significant portion of the variance in scores on the SAS-I, R2 = .13, F (1, 21) = 3.02, p = .10.

Hypothesis 7

Hypothesis 7 predicted that the SELF-RP would obtain no significant correlations with either the SELF-RT or SECT-R. Pearson Product Moment correlation analysis was conducted to ascertain the relationship amongst these measures. Table 6 includes the correlational co-efficients for the SELF-RP/T and SECT.

Pearson Product Moment Correlations

Contrary to this hypothesis the SELF-RP was found to have a significant correlation with the SELF-RT subscale (r = .54, p < .01). Furthermore, a significant positive correlation was found between this scale and the SECT-R (r = .36).

Linear Regression

Regression analyses demonstrated that SELF-RT scores significantly predicted higher scores on the SELF-RP, β =.54, t (21) = 2.91, p < .01. Moreover, SELF-RT scores also explained a significant portion of the variance in SELF-RP scores, R2 = .29, F (1, 21) = 8.47, p < .01. Although there was a significant correlation, regression analysis showed that the SECT-R did not significantly predict scores on the SELF-RP, β =.36, t (21) = 1.76, p = .09. In addition, the SECT-R did not explain a significant portion of the variance in the SELF-RP scores, R2 = .13, F (1, 21) = 3.08, p = .09.

Discussion

        This study focused on further understanding the effects of Reiki practice as experienced by practitioners. Other research has investigated the effects of Reiki as it pertains to healing others; however, the relationship of this practice to the practitioner and the positive healing effects it has, have been overlooked. Specifically, this research has examined Reiki practitioners in terms of transpersonality, spirituality, spiritual well-being, psychological well-being, as well as social desirability and absorption. To accomplish this, self-report measures of transpersonality (SELF-R, SECT), spirituality (SIQ, SAS), psychological well-being (DASS-21), social desirability (SDS-17), and absorption (TAS) were administered to Reiki practitioners (N = 23). Based on the results, there are notable differences with regards to length of time practiced, level of training, and practitioner’s scores on these measures. In this section, the results of all statistical analysis will be discussed. Seven hypotheses were presented for this study and each will be discussed individually followed by a conclusion.
Reliability

      In terms of the measures employed within this study, reliability analysis confirmed that all measures achieved acceptable Chronbach alpha coefficients ranging from .38 to .92 for total measures and subscales inclusive.
Demographics

        The demographics of age, gender, religious affiliation, religious person, spiritual affiliation, were found to have no significant relationships among the measures used. This is accounted for by the limited number of participants (N = 23), limited age variation, and gender differences (3 male and 20 female). With regards to level of training not all groups obtained the same number of participants: level 1 (n = 6), level 2 (n = 9), and master (n = 8). In addition, religious affiliation showed that 61% of the participants belonged to a form of Christianity, 9% were atheist or agnostic, and 30% claimed other beliefs. Although, these numbers would suggest some significance in terms of the measures, none were found.

        In addition, of the 23 respondents who identified being involved in other self-developing practices (martial arts, yoga, meditation, prayer, other), 13.0% were involved in martial arts, 30.4% in yoga, 82.6% in meditation, 65.2% in prayer, 26.1% in other/non-specified, and 4% responded with no practice.

Hypothesis 1

Hypothesis one proposed that those individuals who have employed the use of Reiki for longer periods of time would demonstrate greater levels of transpersonality and spirituality, spiritual well-being, psychological well-being, and absorption, in comparison to those who had practiced for less time. For analysis purposes length of time practiced was grouped into three categories: Group 1 – less than 5 years, Group 2 – 5-10 years, and Group 3 – 10+ years of practice. This was done to attain more accuracy in our analysis and to determine specific differences between the groups. The results for this analysis did not support the original hypothesis, at least in so far as, there were no significant differences found for length of time practiced on the DASS-21, SAS, TAS, SIQ, SDS-17, or SELF-RP. Furthermore, significant differences were found between groups only on the measure of transpersonal self-expansiveness (SELF-RT). The analysis conducted showed that those individual who had practiced for 5-10 years scored higher than both those who had practiced for less than 5 years as well as those who had practiced for 10 or more years. This finding contradicts the original hypothesis. These results suggest that those individuals who have attained 5-10 years of practice are having more transpersonal experiences.

Hypothesis 2

        Hypothesis two examined participants levels of Reiki training (level 1, level 2, and master) in relationship to measures of transpersonality, spirituality, absorption, psychological well-being and social desirability. More specifically, this hypothesis purported that those with higher levels of Reiki training would have greater scores on SELF-RP/T, TAS, SAS, and SIQ while attaining lower subsequent scores on the DASS-21 and SDS-17. Unlike hypothesis one, there were many significant differences that emerged.

        Significant differences were found between levels of Reiki training on the SIQ spiritual transcendence subscale (SIQ-Tot) as well as the measures overall scores (SIQ-ST). For both the SIQ-Tot and the SIQ-ST, higher scores were obtained by the masters group while the lowest scores were obtained by level 1. This suggests, as predicted, that the higher the level of training the greater the individuals level of spirituality. In other words, these individuals who have achieved higher levels of training are experiencing a more unified sense of self in terms of the environment, animals, and people in a way that promotes sense of positive well-being (Pappas, 2005, works in progress). Furthermore, these individuals are identifying themselves as “a part of” rather than “apart from” the universe. In addition, these higher levels of spirituality demarcate those who identify strongly with something non-corporeal and greater than themselves. These findings are related to similar results regarding criterion groups and higher expected scores of spirituality, transcendence, and self-expansiveness as found in previous research conducted by both Pappas (2003) and Friedman (1981, 1983 as cited in Pappas, 2003). These findings further support the positive healing effects that Reiki offers to those who pursue continued practice. Moreover, these findings demonstrate that along with spirituality comes greater psychological well-being.

        Significant differences were also found between levels of Reiki training and the SAS-Tot, SAS-I, and SAS-T. For the SAS-Tot as well as the SAS-I and SAS-T, those who are at the master level report the highest scores. Interestingly, however, these results on the SAS demonstrated a similar trend to those results for length of time practiced and the SELF-RT. That is, those individuals at the master level and level 1 scored higher than those at level 2. As innerness (SAS-I) and transcendence (SAS-T) refer to spiritual notions of an individuals inner strength, source of power, and resilience, it is interesting to find those individuals at the lowest level of training are scoring higher than those at the middle level. This may be explained by those who have attained their second level training having been practicing for longer may also be experiencing more transpersonal phenomena, and as such may be less focused on spiritual notions. In other words, as a result of all their time practiced to attain level 2 they have become better at using Reiki energy. Moreover, by having this stronger ability to employ Reiki energy they will be channeling more healing energy through them. This increased flow of healing energy will unlock many pains and ailments that most often go unrecognized and hidden throughout the body. This release of repressed negative energy results in many different types of experiences, a lot of which are transpersonal in nature. This release is often a difficult time to work through for the individual (Logan, 2003 personal communication). Furthermore, this release would mean increased attention to oneself and those transpersonal experiences that accompany it. This further supports the notion of Reiki as efficacious in terms of overall well-being through demonstrating that increased practice does promote healing from within in terms of working through such times of personal growth and introspection.

        All other analyses for this hypothesis did not produce significant results between level of training on the SELF-RP/T, SECT, TAS, the SDS-17, or the remaining subscales of the SAS-PM, SAS-U, or the SIQ-SR or SIQ-SA. This lack of findings in terms of the measures used may be a result of the limited number of participants for each group. Furthermore, it also demonstrates that those variables that did find significance are in fact measuring different concepts than the other measures.

        As predicted, depression and overall depression, anxiety, and stress significantly declined as level of practice increased. Although the post-hoc analysis revealed that there were no significant differences between level 1 and level 2 or level 2 and master in terms of the DASS-21-D or DASS-21-Tot scores, there was a large significant difference between level 1 and master. These findings suggest that as an individual’s level of training increases, so does their overall well-being. This follows as the previous findings on length of practice and level of training also demonstrate a greater sense of well-being. Similarly, Olson and Hansen (1997 as cited in Anderson, 2001) found that Reiki was significant in reducing the amount of pain that their participants experienced in their pilot study. Moreover, the findings of Witte and Dundes (2001) found significant reductions in mental and physical stress in their study of Reiki effects on undergraduate students. These results support the efficacy of Reiki in terms of reduced depression, anxiety, and stress. Furthermore, they strongly suggest that the practice of Reiki promotes greater overall psychological well-being over time.

Hypothesis 3

      For the third hypothesis, both the length of practice and the level of training were examined for possible differences on all measures used in this study. For analysis purposes, participants were grouped into one of three categories: Group 1—those participants without a master level who have practiced for less than five years, Group 2—those participants without a master level who have practiced for five or more years, or Group 3—those who have a master level and have practiced for five or more years. This grouping was done to promote accuracy of the results when running the analyses. Furthermore, by grouping the participants in this way it was possible to ascertain whether or not there were any differences between length of practice and level of training. In other words, would those who had attained higher levels of training but practiced for less time still experience the same benefits as those who had higher levels and practiced longer. From this grouping, significant differences were found on well-being (DASS-21) and spirituality (SAS, SIQ).

        Significant differences were found between groups on the DASS-Tot and DASS-D. The DASS-Tot demonstrated the greatest mean differences between group 2 and group 3. This suggests that although length of time practiced is involved in attaining higher levels of Reiki training it is not the only contributing variable. In other words, it is those individuals who have not only practiced for five or more years, but also have achieved a master level training who experience greater psychological well-being. These results demonstrate that Reiki is effective in producing lower levels of depression, anxiety and stress for those who stay active for longer and achieve higher training. Correspondingly, researchers (deMaye-Caruth, 2000; Krieger, 1979; Witte & Dundes, 2001; Anderson, 2001; Eichhorn, 2002) have reported that Reiki practice has been shown to produce positive effects in the areas of stress, anxiety, and pain – both chronic and acute. Furthermore, Wardell and Engebretson (2001) found significant relaxation and stress reduction through the application of touch therapy. Moreover, these results further add to the evidence presented thus far in terms of demonstrating increased psychological well-being for longer practice and higher levels of Reiki.

        Analysis on the Spirituality Assessment Scale obtained significant results for the SAS-Tot, SAS-I, as well as the SAS-T. The results for the SAS-Tot, SAS-I, and SAS-T all demonstrated higher scores attained for those with master level training. Furthermore, post-hoc analysis revealed that the greatest difference lay between level 2 and master for these three scales. Importantly, the lack of significance between level 1 and level 2 may suggest that individuals undergo greater personal growth following their attainment of level 2 training. This coincides with previous findings in hypothesis 2 where those participants at level 2 were found to experience greater personal growth. In addition, these results for the SAS innerness demonstrate that those with higher levels of training have greater inner resources (resilience, inner strength to overcome, purpose, meaning). Furthermore, higher scores on the SAS transcendence demonstrate that those individuals with higher levels of training hold a stronger sense of unity with the world and something greater than themselves. These higher scores on this measure of spirituality further emphasize the efficacious nature of Reiki as a practice that promotes well-being through personal growth and transformation.

        Significant differences were also found between groups on the SIQ-Tot and the SIQ-ST. For both scales, the master level practitioners obtained the highest scores. Furthermore, post-hoc analysis revealed the greatest significant difference lay between level 1 and master, further suggesting that the higher the level of training the greater an individuals level of spirituality as previously shown with regards to the SAS. This demonstrates in relation the theory of spiritual well-being, as measured by the SIQ, Reiki practitioners who have practiced longer and who have achieved higher levels of training are experiencing more pronounced aspects of spiritual transcendence, spiritual resiliency, and spiritual affinity. That is, Reiki practitioners who have practiced longer and hold higher levels of training demonstrated a stronger unitive and interconnected awareness, higher levels of purpose and meaning, as well as a connection with something greater than themselves.

        All other comparisons were found to demonstrate no significant differences. This is attributed to the limited number of participants and the way in which the participants were grouped. As a result of combining the two variables (length of practice and level of training) other measures were undeterminably affected.

Hypothesis 4

        For hypotheses four to seven, correlation analysis was run to determine the relationship between the scores obtained on the measure of psychological well-being (DASS-21) and those scores on spiritual well-being the SELF-RP/T, SECT, SIQ-Tot, SIQ-ST, SIQ-SR, and SIQ-SA. No significant relationships were found for the DASS-21 or its subsequent subscales with the SECT, SELF-RT, and SIQ-SA. However, the DASS-21-Tot did show a significant negative relationship with the SELF-RP, SIQ-Tot, SIQ-SR, and SIQ-ST. These results suggest that as transpersonality and spirituality increase, depression, anxiety, and stress decrease. To further investigate these inverse correlations, regression analysis between the DASS-21-Tot, SELF-RP, SIQ-Tot, SIQ-SR, and SIQ-ST were conducted. Regression analysis on the DASS-21-Tot and the SIQ-ST found, however, no significant prediction value for the. Furthermore, the DASS-21-A and DASS-21-S were found to have strong negative correlations with the SELF-RP, SIQ-SR and SIQ-Tot. However, regression analyses showed that the DASS-21-S obtained no significant predictory value for the SIQ-Tot.

        Furthermore, although the DASS-21-D was found to have significant a negative relationship with the SIQ-Tot and the SIQ-SR, regression analysis showed no significance for the DASS-21-D as a predictor of scores on the SIQ-SR. Although the relationship between the DASS-21-Tot and SIQ-ST, DASS-21-S and SIQ-Tot, and DASS-21-D with the SIQ-SR held no predictory value with each other, the significance of these negative correlations between spirituality and psychological well-being suggest that as Reiki practitioners score higher on measures of transpersonality and spirituality they will display lower scores on measures of depression, anxiety and stress and therefore higher levels of well-being.

        These results add to the previous results from Hypotheses 1, 2 and 3, demonstrating that Reiki practice holds efficacy for those who practice in terms of psychological and spiritual well-being. Similarly, Bar (1998) hypothesized that the subtle electromagnetic energy of one person interacts with that of another to stimulate the body into healing itself. These results were similar to Scales (2001) case study observations of a thirty-seven year old woman in post-operative discomfort. He concluded that although the effects of these treatments on the woman’s neurophysiology can only be speculated, the effects of Reiki and other modalities on her anxiety and stress were significant. Moreover, these results further support Reiki as an efficacious practice that is increasingly beneficial over time, both psychologically and spiritually.

Hypothesis 5

For hypothesis 5 the relationship between the SELF-RP/T, SECT-R, SAS and SIQ was examined. It was predicted that the SELF-RP/T, SECT-R, SAS and SIQ would negatively correlate with the DASS-21 and SDS-17. Pearson Product Moment correlation was used to examine the predicted negative relationship between these measures. In accordance with the hypothesis, significant negative correlations were found between the SELF-RP and the DASS-21-Tot, DASS-21-A, and DASS-21-S. Furthermore, the SECT-R and SIQ-ST were found to have significant negative correlations with the DASS-21-Tot. In addition, correlation analyses for the SIQ-Tot, SIQ-SR, SAS-Tot, SAS-PM, SAS-I, and SAS-U all produced significant negative correlations with the DASS-21-Tot, DASS-21-D, DASS-21-A, and DASS-21-S. These findings demonstrate that higher scores on transpersonality and spirituality are inversely related to scores on depression, anxiety and stress. Moreover, this further supports the efficacy of Reiki as an efficacious practice that promotes psychological well-being. As demonstrated in previous hypotheses, Reiki practitioners who have practiced for longer lengths of time and who have attained higher levels of training consistently score higher on measures of transpersonality and spirituality while also scoring consistently lower on measures of depression, anxiety, and stress.

Surprisingly, the SAS-Tot, SAS-PM, SAS-I, and SAS-U were found to demonstrate significant positive correlations with the SDS-17. These results suggest that elements of the SAS are socially desirable. In other words, the SAS contains items that promote answers that are flawed. In terms of this study, this finding suggests that analyses conducted with the SAS may be confounded by the socially desirable content of the measure. However, the results found promoting the efficacy of Reiki with other spirituality measures still remains.

Hypothesis 6

For hypothesis 6, correlational analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between the SELF-RP/T, SECT-R, SIQ, SAS and the TAS. It was predicted that the SELF-RP/T and SECT-R would demonstrate low positive correlations with the SIQ, SAS and the TAS. This analysis demonstrated that the SELF-RP did not significantly correlate with the SAS-Tot, SAS-U, SAS-T, or the TAS. Furthermore, the SELF-RT did not significantly correlate with the SAS-Tot or any of the subscales. In addition, the SECT-R was found to have no significant correlation with the SAS and corresponding subscales or the TAS. Because the SELF-RT and SECT-R did not demonstrate any correlations with the TAS, this suggests that transpersonality and absorption are two completely unrelated concepts. However the SECT-R was found to significantly correlate with the SIQ-Tot. These results support the original hypothesis of low correlations, as there were correlations found, however, they were below significance levels.

Contrary to this hypothesis, the SELF-RP was found to have significant positive correlation with the SIQ-SR SIQ-SA as well as with SIQ-tot. Furthermore, the SELF-RT was found to have significant positive correlations with the SIQ-ST and the SIQ-Tot In addition, the SELF-RP was found to have significant positive correlation with the SAS-PM and SAS-I. These results suggest that those measures that did correlate together are measuring similar concepts. However, these correlations also support each scale in measuring a different component of the same concept. This supports the validity of these measures and also adds to the validity of this study.

Hypothesis 7

Hypothesis 7 examined the relationship between the SELF-RP, SELF-RT and the SECT-R. It was hypothesized that the SELF-RP would not significantly correlate with the SELF-RT or SECT-R. Contrary to this hypothesis the SELF-RP was found to correlate significantly with the SELF-RT and the SECT-R. This demonstrates that, although the personal subscale is believed to be a different construct than the transpersonal subscale they are both measuring something similar.

Implications

        This study employed a survey research design to investigate a criterion group of Reiki practitioners in Regina. A multitude of self-report questionnaire measures were employed to examine Reiki practitioner’s levels of psychological well-being (depression, anxiety, stress; DASS-21), transpersonality (SELF-RP/T, SECT), spirituality (SIQ, SAS), and social desirability (SDS-17). Although many of the hypotheses were supported by the data collected, a few went unsupported. Furthermore, there were several confounding variables, which reduced the significance of this study. Foremost, statistical power for this study was greatly reduced as a result of only attaining 23 participants. Moreover, as a result of having a majority of older women, those participants that were obtained represented only a sample of the Reiki population. This biased the study in terms of gender and age, thereby failing to accurately represent Reiki practitioners as a whole, thus generalization is limited.

      Although this influence on the statistics is important to note, many of the obtained results, as a criterion group was used, do show important trends in psychological well-being and spiritual well-being. As such, there are many implications and directions that can be ameliorated upon based on this study for further research in the area of complementary alternative medicine. For example, replication with more participants would significantly improve on findings as well as produce stronger more accurate results. Moreover, research that specifically focuses on other measures of psychological, emotional, and physical well-being would substantially contribute to understanding the efficacy of Reiki. Although this study investigated spirituality and transpersonality, other concepts such as coping would be important to examine such as Locus of Control in addition to defense mechanisms. Further research is also needed in terms of more specific data (i.e., frequency of practice – daily, weekly, monthly, etc.). More research to further examine and identify why it is that level 2 Reiki practitioners score lower than level 1 on certain measures would be important. In addition, it would be advantageous to investigate why length of time practiced seems to have no significance in relation to measures of psychological well-being and spiritual well-being. Although these results may be skewed by the reduced number of participants, further research would substantiate these findings. In addition, research that exam why the SAS and the SDS-17 correlated as they did, would provide more information of what are spiritually desirable items.

        In conclusion, this study demonstrated that the practice of Reiki has a strong relationship with spiritual well-being and psychological well-being in that as length and level of practice increase, so do overall levels of well-being. As such, the efficacy of Reiki, in regard to those who practice it, is supported based on these finding; however, limited by sample size. As many studies have focused on the benefits that Reiki has on its clients, this study demonstrated that those who practiced this modality also experienced overall well-being, suggesting that Reiki does have healing properties and is efficacious for Reiki practitioners.

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